Population Structure by Income Groups (Cambridge International IGCSE Environmental Management)

Income groups

• Countries around the world are at very different stages of economic development
• To help compare economies fairly, the World Bank groups countries based on their income per person
• These income levels strongly influence population structure, including birth rates, life expectancy and age distribution
• By comparing an LIC and an HIC, clear patterns can be seen

Low-income countries (LICs)

• Low-income countries have the lowest average income per person

  • $2.87 per day or $1,045 or less per annum

• Many people live close to or below the poverty line

• Economies are often based on agriculture and low-paid primary industries

• Access to healthcare, education and clean water may be limited

• Birth rates are usually high and life expectancy is often lower

• Examples include Chad, Ethiopia, Burundi, Mali, Niger, Somalia, and Yemen

Middle-income countries (MICs)

• Middle-income countries have moderate average incomes per person

  • Approximately $10.01–$20 per day or $3,654 to $7,300 per annum

• The World Bank (WB) splits this group into lower-middle and upper-middle

• Many are experiencing rapid industrialisation and urban growth, but still face inequality

  • A phenomenon known as the middle-income trap, where a country stagnates after rapid growth and cannot transition into a high-income economy due to rising wages and a lack of innovation

• Living standards are improving, but income inequality may still be high

• Healthcare and education are more widely available than in LICs

• Birth rates are falling, but population growth often continues

• Examples include India, Nigeria, Pakistan (lower-middle), China, Brazil, South Africa, Mexico, Indonesia, Russia (upper-middle)

High-income countries (HICs)

• High-income countries have the highest average income per person

  • $20+ a day

• Most people have a high standard of living

• Economies are dominated by tertiary and quaternary industries

• Healthcare, education and infrastructure are well developed

• Birth rates are low and life expectancy is high

• Examples include USA, Germany, Japan, UK, Canada, Australia, Singapore, and Switzerland

Population structure of HICs and LICs

• Population structure varies greatly between countries at different stages of economic development
• By comparing Nepal, a low-income country, with the USA, a high-income country, clear contrasts can be seen in age structure, dependency and future population challenges
• These differences are best shown using population pyramids

Population structure of an LIC: Nepal

• Nepal has a mainly expansive population pyramid, although the base is beginning to narrow slightly
• The relatively wide base shows a moderately high birth rate, meaning many children are born each year
• A large proportion of the population is under 15, creating a high youth dependency ratio
• The pyramid narrows quickly with age, showing lower life expectancy compared to HICs
• Limited access to healthcare, lower incomes and rural living conditions reduce survival into old age
• This structure places pressure on education, healthcare and future employment opportunities

Expansive population pyramid

Population structure of an HIC: USA

• The USA has a stationary moving to a slightly constrictive population pyramid
• The narrower base shows lower birth rates, linked to family planning, higher living costs and female employment
• A large working-age population supports the economy
• Wider upper age groups show high life expectancy, due to advanced healthcare and nutrition
• An increasing elderly population raises the old-age dependency ratio
• This creates pressure on healthcare systems, pensions and social care services

Stationary moving to constrictive population pyramid

Direct comparison of population structure

• Nepal has a younger population, while the USA has an ageing population
• Nepal faces challenges linked to providing schools, jobs and healthcare for a growing population
• The USA faces challenges linked to supporting an elderly population and maintaining a large workforce
• These contrasts reflect differences in income levels, healthcare access, education and economic development

Worked Example Compare the population structure of Nepal and the USA.

[6 marks]

Answer

Nepal has an expansive population pyramid [1] with a relatively wide base, showing a high proportion of young people. **[1] **This creates a high youth dependency ratio and pressure on education and future employment. [1] In contrast, the USA has a more stationary population pyramid with a narrower base, showing lower birth rates. [1] The wider upper age groups show high life expectancy and an ageing population. [1] As a result, Nepal faces challenges linked to population growth, while the USA faces challenges linked to supporting elderly dependants. [1]

Marking guidance

The command word ‘compare’ means the answer needs to identify both similarities and differences between two or more things.

Mark allocation

• Up to** 3 marks **for the accurate description of Nepal’s population structure.
• Up to** 2 marks** for the accurate description of the USA’s population structure.
• 1 mark for a clear comparison or consequence.

Examiner tips

• Always name the case study countries.
• Refer to specific features of the population pyramid.
• Make direct comparisons rather than writing two separate descriptions.
• Link population structure to real-life challenges.